Littoral

THE WORD LITTORAL comes from the Latin root littus, or “seashore.” The littoral zone of a lake or ocean refers to the shallow waters closest to shore. In lakes, this is the zone dropping from the shoreline to roughly 10 ft (3 m) deep where there is enough sunlight for rooted plants to exist. Only in lakes with strong wave action will the littoral zone have algae instead of rooted plants.

Since the littoral zone is the interface between the lake and the surrounding watershed, it receives and accumulates sediment and nutrients that can support a wide variety of plants and animals. Plants include emergent wetland vegetation to submergent plants that may or may not reach the lake surface. This vegetation provides nutrients and habitat for fishes, birds, amphibians, invertebrates, and zooplankton.

Because of tides and wave action, the littoral zone of an ocean is subdivided into many parts. The supralittoral zone (spray zone) is found above the high tide mark up to the point that ocean spray cannot reach. This area usually receives only ocean spray, except for very high tides or storm surges that can inundate it. The intertidal littoral zone is bordered by the high and low tide marks. The sublittoral zone starts at the low tide mark and goes out to roughly 650 ft (200 m) deep, which is the average depth of the edge of the continental shelf. Numerous species live in these zones, each adapted to the abundance and presence of water they receive each day.

Littoral zones are the interface between land and water, and so they are very productive, meaning they support many plants and animals. However, these same areas are also easily altered by human development or pollution. For example, more people in the UNITED STATES are building homes on the remaining edges of lakes and rivers. Disturbing the soil to grade the lot and build the house causes erosion, which moves sediment into the water. Often, people will dump a load of sand on the littoral zone so that they don’t have to walk through plants to go swimming and so it will look neater. Piers built off of these lots can also damage the plants in the littoral zone. As houses age, septic systems start to fail and this nutrient-rich pollution moves laterally into the water, promoting eutrophication. Polluted runoff from driveways and lawns can also impair the waterways.

Coastlines in every country have been feeling additional pressures from growing cities. The more human activity near a coastline results in more damage to the littoral zone. In wealthier areas, beach replenishment (dumping new sand on the beach) buries the current plants and animals, and the building of seawalls and groins to protect one beach will disturb currents to more seriously erode the next unprotected beach downcurrent. The major problem, however, is pollution. Sewer pipes and polluted rivers both dump myriad pollutants into the littoral and sublittoral zones, damaging the life forms there.

Sometimes people hear about this type of pollution when local health departments close down shellfish beds after sewage pollution has been high (because of storm sewer overflows or treatment plant malfunctions). Similarly, each year more beachgoers arrive to find beaches closed where water quality monitoring has detected pathogens, particularly after rain events. Surfers on the west coast of the UNITED STATES have long complained of intestinal sickness and skin sores after spending time in the water near sewage and creek outfalls. There is increasing pressure on coastal cities to repair and upgrade their aging treatment facilities to solve this problem.

Other laws now prevent ocean liners from dumping their sewage (treated or not) near shore, and only to dump treated sewage many miles out to sea. In some countries, laws require that ships not dump their waste oil or oily bilgewater close to shore or that only double-hulled oil tankers may enter port. Degrading littoral zones, particularly along oceans, damages habitat that marine and shorebird animals need, thus reducing this common resource both regionally and globally. The LAW OF THE SEA expects that signatories respect and protect these areas, but oftentimes little or no protection exists.

Lithuania

THE REPUBLIC OF Lithuania in northern Europe is a lowland country that borders LATVIA to the north, BELARUS to the east and southeast, POLAND and the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad to the southwest, and the Baltic Sea to the west. Lithuania is a parliamentary democracy with the supreme council or Seimas serving as the legislature and the president serving as head of state. Its major cities are Vilnius, Kaunas, and Klaipedia. The Lithuanian countryside consists of lowlands and small hills and is dotted by 3,000 lakes. The climate is generally humid, with peak rainfall in August. Temperatures range from 23 degrees F (-5 degrees C) in January to 63 degrees F (17 degrees C) in June. The chief river is the Nemunas, which flows to the Baltic Sea.

Permanent human settlements in what is now Lithuania date to about 8000 B.C.E. In the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights were sent to Lithuania to convert the pagan population to Christianity. In 1385, Grand Duke Jogaila married Queen Jadwiga of POLAND, which began the Christianization of Lithuania and its special relationship with Poland. In 1569, the Treaty of Lublin joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland into a Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to balance the growing power of Moscow. Thereafter, Lithuania joined Poland’s decline, ultimately culminating in the partitions by AUSTRIA, Prussia, and RUSSIA between 1772 and 1795.

Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire after the final Polish partition in 1795. The population was subjected to harsh policies forbidding use of the Lithuanian language, resulting in revolts in 1830 and 1863. In 1918, Lithuania declared its independence amid the destruction and chaos of World War I and the Russian Revolution. In August 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact split Poland and the Baltic States between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. In 1941, the Nazis invaded Lithuania, only to be reoccupied by the Soviet Union. After World War II, Lithuania was incorporated into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

In 1991, Lithuania regained its independence with the other Baltic States. The last Soviet troops withdrew from Lithuanian soil in 1993. Like its Baltic neighbors, Lithuania has taken steps to integrate into Europe by joining the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) in 2003 and the EUROPEAN UNION in 2004. 

Lithuanians make up 80 percent of the population, with the remainder consisting of Russians, Poles, and Belarussians. Roman Catholicism is the religion practiced by the majority of Lithuanians. After the demise of the Soviet Union, the state of Russians residing since the Soviet era poses a challenge for Lithuania. The Lithuanian economy has had to transform from a command economy under the control of Moscow to a free market economy. This process has been successful in bringing prosperity but has also created inequities in the standard of living. Lithuania’s chief exports are meat, milk, dairy products, and television parts, while remaining dependent on oil and natural gas from Russia.

Lisbon

WITH A metropolitan-area population of 2,682,687, Lisbon is the capital and largest city in PORTUGAL. It is located on the right bank of the Tagus River, where it forms a large estuary providing a natural safe harbor close to the ATLANTIC OCEAN. The city evolves over a series of hills and enjoys a Mediterranean climate, with mild winters and warm dry summers.

Lisbon was the capital of a worldwide empire for more than 400 years and is the main political, economic, and cultural center of Portugal. The origin of the settlement is remote. Occupied by the Romans in 205 b.c.e., the town was confined to old Castle Hill and the slope leading to the river. It was conquered by the Moors in 714 and recovered by the Crusades and the king of Portugal in 1147. Lisbon was promoted to capital of the kingdom in 1255, and thanks to commerce between the Mediterranean and northern Europe, it became a primary urban center during the 13th and 14th centuries.

Serving as base for the Portuguese expeditionary navies in the age of discoveries, the city benefited the most from this period and became a significant cultural and economic center: infrastructures and especially monuments were built, and the city expanded to the west. In 1527, Lisbon already stood out among Portuguese cities and gained importance at a European level. An earthquake in 1755 destroyed most of the city. The downtown area (Baixa) was rebuilt as a regular grid aligned with the river, replacing tortuous medieval streets and turning it into a hallmark of Lisbon for its unity and architectural value.

Until the development of railroad transportation, the river was the main thoroughfare for the transport of people and goods between the city and more interior areas of the country. During the 19th century industrialization, mass transit was introduced and larger factories were installed along the river, attracting peasants from the countryside and originating typical worker neighborhoods. At the end of that century, the opening of Avenida da Liberdade, a wide boulevard, changed the form of the city by directing growth toward the north. However, by 1940 Lisbon was still concentrated and close to the river. On the hill to the west, the 2,540-acre (1,028-hectare) Monsanto forest park was created on still undeveloped land.

After World War II, a sharp increase in urbanization pushed growth beyond the limits of the municipality, and toward the west and north along main transportation routes (especially railroads). Population of the city stabilized in the 1950s, and by 2000 only 20 percent of the population of the metropolitan area lived within city limits. In the 1950s and 1960s, new industrial areas were located in Cabo Ruivo and on the south bank, connected by a bridge in 1966. More recent transformations include the expanding network of expressways and construction of large peripheral shopping centers, underlining the ongoing strong suburbanization. Part of the east riverfront was rebuilt to replace heavy industry with an area of residential use.

Liechtenstein

ONE OF WESTERN Europe’s five microstates, the story-book principality of Liechtenstein is in reality one of the few “absolutist” states in the world, thanks to a favorable referendum voting extensive powers to the ruling sovereign in March 2003. His Serene Highness, Prince Hans-Adam II von und zu Liechtenstein now has more political prerogatives than any other monarch in Europe.

Sandwiched between the Swiss cantons of St.Gallen to the west and Graubünden to the south and the Austrian province of Vorarlberg to the east, Liechtenstein’s history has naturally been closely linked to its larger neighbors. The family had served the Habsburgs in AUSTRIA for centuries, and in fact the family derives its name from its main castle just south of Vienna. Prince Johann Adam bought the county of Vaduz and the adjacent lordship of Schellenberg in 1699 and 1712, and the two territories were united as a fully independent member of the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. But the land itself was of secondary importance to the family: no sovereign prince of Liechtenstein even visited until the middle of the 19th century.

When the Holy Roman Empire fell apart thanks to Napoleon in 1806, Liechtenstein fell between the cracks and was not consolidated into one of the larger German states. Successive princes maintained their independence and forged a beneficial customs union with Austria in 1852. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, however, the princes turned west and formed a similar customs and monetary union with SWITZERLAND in 1923, which is still in effect today. The princely family still owns large estates in Austria and lays claim to numerous others in the CZECH REPUBLIC that were confiscated by the communists (equal to ten times the size of the principality itself). Still, the prince’s wealth is estimated at more than $2 billion.

The principality—15 mi (26 km) long, and an average of 4 mi (6 km) wide—lies on the eastern bank of the RHINE RIVER, between its emergence from the high Alpine valleys of Switzerland and Lake Constance to the north. Two canals running on either side of the river through this valley maintain its water levels to reduce risk of spring floods. The eastern third of Liechtenstein is divided from the rest by a range of mountains, forming the upper Samintal, or valley of the Samina River, which runs northward into the Ill in Austria, which in turn joins the RHINE just a few kilometers north of Liechtenstein. To the east and south of this valley rise the much greater Alpine heights dividing the country from Austria, including a number of peaks above 8,250 feet (2,500 m).

The main town, Vaduz, has a population of about 5,000. High above the town, the prince’s castle, dating from the 14th century, boasts one of the largest private art collections in the world and is a major tourist attraction. Much of this art collection has recently been transferred to Vienna’s newest major art gallery, the restored Liechtenstein Palace, opened to the public in March 2004. Liechtenstein itself has been transformed since World War II from a sleepy agricultural community to a modern industrialized society with one of the world’s highest standards of living. Revenue is generated locally through skiing and the sale of rare stamps, but it is the income from numerous so-called post-office-box companies, attracted by low business taxes, that has boosted the national economy (providing as much as 30 percent of state revenues). Concerns over tax evasion schemes and money laundering, however, have recently caused increased pressure from the EUROPEAN UNION and the principality’s authorities.

Libya

A RELATIVELY LARGE country, similar in size to the state of ALASKA, Libya largely consists of broad rolling deserts, barren rock inselbergs and immense dune fields or ERGS. It is a landscape of sandstorms; hot dusty wind, or ghibli; an expanding desert; and scarce water. More than 90 percent of the country is considered arid or semiarid. It primary cities are all located on the MEDITERRANEAN SEA coastline, which has facilitated its links across North Africa to Europe and western Asia.

Generally speaking, the Saharan plateau covers most of Libya. The exceptions are in the northwest corner in a region known as Tripolitania and in the northeast in Cyrenaica, Libya’s largest region. The Tripolitania region, which runs north to south, is a string of carefully cultivated coastal oases in addition to the triangular Al-Jifarah plain, and the Nafusah Plateau, 200 mi (320 km) of limestone between 2,000 and 3,000 ft (600 to 915 m) in elevation.

Libya has no perennial rivers, but there are extensive underground aquifers that support artesian wells and springs. Libya’s arid desert climate is moderated along the coast by the Mediterranean Sea. Precipitation ranges from 16 to 20 in (40 to 50 cm) in the northern hills to less than 5 in (12 cm) throughout most of the south, and to 1 in (2.5 cm) in the Libyan Desert.

Droughts are common, meaning natural vegetation is minimal. Libya’s principal mineral resource is its reserves of petroleum, Africa’s largest and among the world's largest. Since it earliest days as a major Phoenician and Roman territory on the North African coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Libya has been raided and colonized by Vandals, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and Italians until its independence in 1951. Only a few years later, the country changed dramatically with the discovery of enormous oil reserves. In 1969, a 27-year-old Muammar Qaddafi led a successful coup to gain control of the nation. Qaddafi has been victorious in removing any imprints of previous cultures to create a landscape from his own vision. Based upon his Third International Theory, he created a political system combining Islam and socialism.

Using petroleum revenues in the 1970s and 1980s to promote political ideologies (including supporting terrorist activities) throughout the region, Libya prompted the United Nations (UN) to impose economic sanctions after the Lockerbie terrorist bombing was suspected to have had Libyan ties. The sanctions were then lifted in April 1999 when Qaddafi handed over Lockerbie bombing suspects.

Liberia

LIBERIA, “LAND OF THE FREE,” in western Africa, borders the north ATLANTIC OCEAN, between CÔTE D’IVOIRE and SIERRA LEONE. It has 10 to 50 mi (16 to 80 km) of flat coastal plain that contains creeks, mangrove swamps, and lagoons. Beyond that, forested hills, from 600 to 1,200 ft (180 to 370 m) high cover the rest of the country, excluding the mountains in the northern highlands. The maximum peak in the Nimba Mountains is 4,540 ft (1,383 m). Six principal rivers flow to the ATLANTIC OCEAN.

Vegetation is predominantly forest, and the tropical, humid climate sees rainfall averages of 183 in (465 cm) on the coast and 88 in (224 cm) in the southeast. The dry season (harmattan, December and January) splits two rainy seasons. Cities other than Monrovia are the ports of Harper and Buchanan. POPULATION GROUPS

There are 16 ethnicities in Liberia, including the Kpelle, Mano, Baso, Grebo, Kru, and Vaj. Seventy percent are native, traditional religion practitioners, while 20 percent are Muslim and 10 percent Christian. Although English is the official language, the native languages are used commonly. The Americo-Liberians, a minority residing in the cities, tend to be Protestants.

Other population groups include Lebanese merchants and European and American technicians. Liberia was founded in 1820 on the Grain Coast; it was the gift of the American Colonization Society, which received it from the Cape Mesurado chiefs. The founders fought bloody battles with the indigenous peoples. Eighty-six freed slaves from the United States established Christopolis, later Monrovia, in February 1820. Approximately 15,000 freed slaves emigrated from the United States until the American Civil War. In 1847, Liberia declared itself an independent republic.

Until 1980, the Americo-Liberian or True Whig Party (TWP) ruled Liberia. The first president was Joseph Jenkins Roberts, American-born. The government and constitution were modeled on that of the UNITED STATES. The republic traded with other parts of West Africa, but it modeled its style of living on those of the United States.

Modernization efforts led to a crisis of foreign debt in 1871. Conflicts with FRANCE and Britain led to losses of territory in 1885, 1892, and 1919. Liberia used the European rivalries and the support of the United States to remain independent. Still its exports declined and its debts rose, leading to foreign interference. Bankruptcy came in 1909. International loans saved Liberia. In 1926, Firestone, the American tire company, leased large rubber plantations. In 1930, the League of Nations investigated charges that Liberia was exporting labor, that is, engaging in the slave trade. The president resigned.

The new president, William Tubman, opened the country to international investment, allowed indigenes greater participation, and allowed the exploitation of iron and other minerals. Education, roads, infrastructures, and healthcare were improved. Tubman died in 1971. His vice president, W.R. Tolbert took over. A proposed increase in the price of rice in 1979 set off rioting. The TWP’s rule ended on April 12, 1980, when Master Sergeant Samuel K. Doe, a native Krahn, pulled off a successful coup. Doe’s forces executed Tolbert and several other Americo-Liberians. Doe’s People’s Redemption Council promised a return to civilian rule, then began repressing the opposition and abusing human rights. Doe instituted constitutional changes, survived numerous coups, and saw flight of thousands of refugees to the Côte d’Ivoire. The refugees returned in 1989, led by Charles Taylor. The war waxed and waned until finally in 2003 the Taylor regime ended, and the country and government struggled to maintain the uneasy truce.

Lesotho

LESOTHO IS LOCATED literally within SOUTH AFRICA: This small southern African country is landlocked and surrounded on all sides by the Republic of South Africa. Lesotho covers an area slightly smaller than MARYLAND. It is the only country in the world that lies entirely above 3,280 ft (1,000 m) and more than 80 percent of Lesotho is 5,905 ft (1,800 m) above sea level. Lesotho is mainly mountains, hills, and highlands with plateaus. It has a very temperate climate, with cool to cold dry winters and hot, wet summers.

Lesotho has four major mountain ranges within its borders. The DRAKENSBURG MOUNTAIN range, the Central range, and the Thoba Rutsoa range are all in the central and eastern parts of Lesotho and the Maloti range is in the western region. Thabana-Ntlenyana is the highest peak in all of southern Africa. It is also called “The Kingdom in the Sky,” “The Roof of Africa,” and “The Switzerland of Africa.” Deep river valleys and canyons cut these mountains; the water that flows through these canyons is the major water supply for all of southern Africa. Many of the rivers on the southern part of the African continent start in these hills, including the Orange River and its many tributaries.

This water is Lesotho’s main natural resource. Lesotho is exploiting its water through the Lesotho Highlands Water Project. This project is designed to capture, store, and transfer water from the Orange River system and send it to the Republic of South Africa. This project not only moves water but produces hydroelectricity as well. There are going to be approximately seven dams and two tunnels when the project is complete in 2020. With the first phase of the project already completed, Lesotho has become almost completely self-sufficient in the production of electricity. Already it has generated approximately $24 million annually through the sale of electricity and water to South Africa.

The kingdom of Lesotho is heavily populated especially in the western part of Lesotho where there is more arable land. There, the people raise crops of corn, sorghum, wheat, beans, peas, asparagus, tomatoes, and peaches. Most of the land is used for raising animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, chickens, and horses. These people, called the Basotho, are remnants of various ethnic groups made up mainly of various Bantu-speaking people and some of the original San or Bushmen who were Lesotho’s earliest inhabitants. The Basotho managed to fend off both the Zulus and the Boers in the 1800s.

On October 4, 1966, Lesotho gained independence. The Lesotho government is now a constitutional monarchy with a king as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of government. Currently, the king serves primarily as a ceremonial figure with no executive power. However, all land in Lesotho is held by the king and is allocated to the Basotho people through local chiefs. Foreigners in Lesotho are strictly forbidden from owning land. Lesotho has one of the highest literacy rates in Africa; official languages are English and Sesotho, a Bantu language.