Insurgent State

INSURGENT STATE is a term that refers to the creation of a geographic area that not only claims independence from the larger state, but whose leaders and policies also seek to replace the existing political order and state, or to become independent. It is not a segment of the country that seeks independence (civil war). It is a state within a state whose leaders seek total control of the existing state. It is not an ENCLAVE, as it is not a base or colony of another external, state or power.

While not a new phenomenon, the conscious use of GUERRILLA BASES to form a proto-state is largely the product of Mao Zedong in his war to become ruler of all CHINA in the 1920s. Since then, the practice of creating distinct geographic areas that are beyond the control of the central government, and which also seek to replace that government or become wholly separate, has become widespread. The Sendero Luminoso in PERU, Che Guevara’s foco model for BOLIVIA, the current creation and recognition of separate political areas in COLOMBIA, and the numerous rebel-controlled areas in Africa, all provide examples of this process.

It is a case of using geography to change politics (the geography behind politics). It is not the same as creating colonies and thus colonialism. If the base should seek only regional autonomy or a redress of local grievance, then it is not an insurgent state. It would be a guerrilla base or bandit area. 

In the 21st century, the al Qaeda movement created by Osama bin Laden has changed the scale for the creation of a politically focused insurgent state from local to global. This movement seeks to establish insurgent states among conservative Muslims, and then to use these bases (insurgent states) to change regional and perhaps global governments. However, this is not the first such movement to seek a global change using small enclaves. The early Christians and later the Roman Catholic Church have used similar techniques in pursuit of their goals.

Indus River

THE INDUS RIVER in PAKISTAN flows 1,900 mi (3,000 km) from southwestern TIBET to the Arabian Sea. From the dawn of human culture, the Indus River has sustained societies along its banks; the earliest civilization that can be reliably distinguished is called the Indus Valley civilization (or Harappan). This sophisticated society is dated back to 2500 B.C.E. The Harappan culture was a well organized civilization built upon surplus agricultural production and bolstered by commerce that reached as far Mesopotamia. The nascent agricultural predecessors of the Harappan culture may well reach back into the 5th millennium B.C.E.

The name Indus comes from its Sanskrit name sindhu (meaning “water, flood, ocean”). The drainage basin of this great river has caught a continuous stream of invaders and conquerors of various ethnic, linguistic, and religious origins. Each of these succeeding groups would wind their way through the mountain barriers and flow down toward the Indus River seeking purchase in its fertile valley. The records of these peoples come to us through spoken and literary traditions that reach back without break to 2000 B.C.E. The Vedas are a uniquely ancient traditional history that tells us of the Aryan tribal groups of pantheistic pastoralists that supplanted the earlier Harappan culture.

This pattern of migration, conquest, and decline would repeat itself over the centuries to follow. Alexander the Great brought his conquering army to the Indus around 326 B.C.E. and left a lasting impression of Hellenist culture in art of the region. This influence survives in the great Buddhist statuary art treasures that grace the Indus Valley. Buddhism gained dominance with the coming of Ashoka (236 B.C.E.) and his turning of Taxila into a major Buddhist center of learning and culture. 

The ebb and flow of empires continued with rulers from the east and west vying for control. Buddhist, resurgent Hindu, and then Islamic conquerors ruled until the passing of time brought 15th century Europeans to the Indus River. The British came as all conquerors before them, but were the first to seek to subdue the Indus River as well as its people. They spent 100 years attempting to harness the irrigation power of the waters. This radically changed the landscape and impacted social and political structures, changes that continue today. The dams and barrages built by the British remain the primary infrastructure to fight annual flooding.

The Indus River shares all the challenges that accrue with major man-made improvements. Dams reduce flows in lower portions of the system and limit the transport of fertile sediments downstream into the DELTA. Dams compartmentalize river systems and isolate aquatic life into smaller communities. Extraction of irrigation water, especially during low water periods can threaten fish stocks. Introduced species often compete with indigenous ones.

Density of population along the Indus and its tributaries combined with an almost total lack of conventional public sanitation systems mean many water courses are little more than sewage carriers at low flow periods. This leads directly to the contamination of drinking water and agricultural produce. Low-lying land is commonly used as solid waste dumping sites contributing to illness and mortality. The vaunted “green revolution” has brought increased food production but also introduced large quantities of fertilizers and pesticides into the waters and sediments of the Indus. Growth of the textile industry and other manufacturing has radically increased the flow of toxic industrial wastes into the riparian system. Pakistan is only in the earliest stages of studying and addressing the sustainment needs of the Indus River.

The head of the Indus rises in southwestern Tibet. It then flows northwest through Kashmir before bending to the south and leaving the mountains to become a slow-flowing, highly braided river course. It is dammed near Peshawar to form the Tarbela Reservoir. The catchment area of the Indus is estimated at almost 386,100 square mi (1 million square km), and all of Pakistan’s major rivers flow into it. In its upper basin of Punjab (meaning “land of five waters”) are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers. Passing by Hyderabad, it ends in a large delta to the southeast of KARACHI.

Iran

IRAN IS A MIDDLE EASTERN country, bordering the Gulf of Oman, the PERSIAN GULF, and the CASPIAN SEA, between IRAQ and PAKISTAN. Iran is a large country that is dominated by rugged mountains and large deserts. At its center is the Iranian Plateau, with great mountain ranges such as the ZAGROS in the west, the ELBURZ in the north along the Caspian Sea coast, and the mountains of Khurasan to the northeast. These mountains and the high plateau create a bowl-shaped arid expanse broken by oases that mark the ancient caravan routes. Along the Caspian coast in the north a subtropical climate exists, supporting the primary fertile region of Iran.

The Iran of today stands upon an ancient base of civilization and culture. Long a crossroads for conquerors, it has been known in the West as Persia since the beginnings of historical records associated with Cyrus the Great in the 6th century B.C.E. Alexander the Great brought Hellenistic culture to Persia in the 4th century B.C.E. and opened the gate to a long procession of foreign dynasties that would rule there. Greeks, Turks, Arab-Muslims, Mongols, and Tamerlane all made their mark as centuries passed. It was during the Safayid dynasty (1502–1736) that one of the great Persian empires arose. Under Shah Abbas, the Shia branch of Islam was made predominant and the holy city of Esfahan was rebuilt as the capital.

Invasion, succession of dynasties, and finally a nationalist uprising brought Iran into the 20th century. In 1925, a final dynasty was created by an army officer who had seized power and proclaimed himself shah, creating a new Pahlavi dynasty. Under Shah Reza Khan, Iran began to modernize and consolidate power as a nation-state. In 1941, during occupation of western Iran by UNITED KINGDOM and Soviet Union forces, the shah was forced to abdicate and his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi became the new shah. At the end of World War II, allied forces were slow to withdraw, but with pressure from the UNITED STATES, Soviet forces left and the young shah reestablished his power over all Iran. He became closely aligned with the West. His pro-modernization and pro-Western stance did not hold well with the people of Iran.

Over his three decades of rule, repression and economic difficulties were the norm. The shah fled the country and an exiled religious leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, returned to witness a popular Islamic revolution sweep the country. The United States had long supported the now-shunned Shah Pahlavi and was associated with the feared and hated secret police, the SAVAK. In 1979, the U.S. embassy in Tehran was seized and the embassy personnel were held hostage for over a year.

Conservative clerical forces established a theocratic government within an Islamic republic. Soon after Ayatollah Khomeini’s return and rise as Iran’s religious leader, neighboring Iraq invaded Iran along its western border and started a bloody eight years of warfare. The West no longer supported the government of Iran and backed Iraq with arms sales and military intelligence during the deadly and futile conflict that raged until 1988.

Relationships with the West remain difficult today as questions of Iran-sponsored terrorism and assassinations are topics of official communications. The United States maintains a trade embargo against Iran. Calls for United Nations scrutiny of Iranian atomic energy programs have increased in light of concerns with proliferation of nuclear weapons technology and pursuit of weapons of mass destruction.

The Persian language, also known as Farsi, is spoken by over half of the population and is written with Arabic script. Turkic dialects make up the next largest language group. The peoples of Persia have long been known for their artistic excellence in handcrafts, architecture, and poetry. Iran has a rich ethnic mix across its landscape. Whereas more than 60 percent of the population is of Aryan origin, large groups of Turkic, Persians, Kurds, Lurs, and Baluchi are found as well. Nearly two-thirds of the population now resides in urban areas where some modernity has taken hold, but the remainder lives in a vast land close to the rhythms of rural life.

Iran’s constitution now proclaims that Shia Islam is the official religion. Some 89 percent of the Islamic population of Iran belongs to the Shia branch of ISLAM. The Sunni branch has historically controlled leadership in neighboring Muslim countries. Clerics now dominate politics and almost all aspects of urban and rural life in Iran. Iran is most closely associated with strict Islamic beliefs yet is also the birthplace of the ancient Zoroastrian faith and the more recent Baha’i religion.

Iran’s economy is based upon oil production, with over 80 percent of all revenues stemming from this industry. The nation’s overall economy requires more diversification and modernization. Iran’s economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and large scale enterprises, village agriculture, and smallscale private trading and service ventures. Economic reforms continue but at a measured pace and with mixed results.

Iowa

IOWA IS A midwestern state in the north-central part of the UNITED STATES bordered on two sides by major rivers. To the east is the MISSISSIPPI that separates Iowa from ILLINOIS and WISCONSIN. In the west, the Missouri River separates it from NEBRASKA, while the Big Sioux River separates it from SOUTH DAKOTA from Sioux City northward. To the north lies MINNESOTA and to the south MISSOURI.

Interestingly, there is a small heel of Iowa that extends south into Missouri in the southeastern corner of the state along the MISSISSIPPI RIVER. Here, Iowa actually has a western boundary with Missouri, since you can leave the city of Keokuk and drive westward into Missouri. The state’s rich, fertile plains are generally low and gently sloping for the eastern three-quarters of the state. Rivers in the area, including the Des Moines River, which flows from Minnesota through the middle of the state, all flow in a southeasterly direction toward the Mississippi River. There is a small region in the extreme northeastern corner that was not glaciated during the last ice age that Iowans often refer to as the Switzerland of Iowa because of the visual effect the sharp cuts in the river bluffs along the Mississippi River give to the landscape.

The western one-quarter of the state is somewhat higher in elevation, with numerous rivers dissecting the hill country along the western border as they flow in a southwesterly direction toward the Missouri River. Elevations in the state range for a low of 380 ft (116 m) above sea level in the boot heel region in the very southeastern corner to 1,670 ft (509 m) at Hawkeye Point in the northwestern corner of the state. Slightly more than 100 years ago, you would find extensive woodlands of hickory and black walnut in the state as well as extensive prairies with grass higher than the wagon wheels of the settlers’ wagons. But rapid settlement during the 19th century brought on rapid deforestation and the plow turned nearly all of the prairie grasslands into farmland for corn and other grains.

Des Moines (pronounced without the “s” sound in either word) is the capital and largest city, with 198,682 residents (2000). Other important cities near or above the 100,000 mark are Cedar Rapids (120,758) and Davenport (98,359). Iowa ranks 30th in total population, with 2,926,324 residents, and 26th in land area at 56,276 square mi (145,756 square km).

The state’s 10 largest cities account for 29 percent of the total population, enough to drop the density feeling as you drive around the state to 36 persons per square mi (94 per square km) from the official figure of 52.37 per square mi (136 per square km). Iowa ranks 33rd in per capita income ($26,431) and 35th in disposable per capita income ($22,949).

EARLY SETTLERS

Prior to the first Europeans coming to Iowa, the area was home to prehistoric Native Americans mound builders who were primarily farmers. By the time the Europeans arrived in the 17th century, the Iowa, Sac, and Fox roamed over the land, in addition to the Sioux who dominated the area. Fur traders found the land profitable during the late 1600s, establishing a number of small towns along the Mississippi River and Des Moines River junction.

By the late 1700s, the area near present-day Dubuque was leased from the Indians for lead mining. Iowa came into the control of the UNITED STATES in 1803 following the LOUISIANA PURCHASE. Until 1821, Iowa was part of the Missouri Territory. After 1821, Iowa was part of both the Michigan Territory and Wisconsin Territory prior to being organized as the Iowa Territory in 1838. With a reputation for rich soil, Iowa grew rapidly as new immigrants flocked to the state.

Many of these came from Europe, notably Germans, Czechs, Dutch, and Scandinavians, bringing their agricultural skills and own customs to enrich Iowa’s rural life. One group of German Pietists established the Amana Church Society, a successful attempt at communal organization still recognizable as the Amana Colonies. Iowa became a state in 1846 and in 1857 the capital was moved from Iowa City to Des Moines. 

Iowa truly is a breadbasket for the United States with 90 percent of the land devoted to farming. The deep, porous soils help sustain yields in corn and other grains in tremendous quantities. Iowa often leads the nation in the production of corn, soybeans, hogs, and pigs, and is ranked in the top 10 in the raising of cattle. Iowa corn-fed hogs and cattle are nationally known. And Iowa consistently ranks high among farm states in terms of farm income. Abundant and consistent agriculture yields have also benefited the state’s food processing industry. Non-electrical machinery, farm machinery, tires, appliances, electronic equipment, and chemicals are among the other manufactured products.

Mineral production is small and centered around cement(the most important mineral product) stone, sand, gravel, gypsum, and some coal. Communications, finance, and insurance are especially important in Des Moines; the area is often referred to as the Hartford (from Hartford, CONNECTICUT, insurance companies) of the Midwest.

Indonesia

COMPOSED OF 17,000 islands, Indonesia is the world’s sixth-largest nation and the world’s largest archipelago, stretching over 5,000 mi (8,047 km) along the equator. It lies southeast of the Malay Peninsula and Indochina. AUSTRALIA is due south and the PHILIPPINES lie to the north. About half the population lives on the island of JAVA where the capital, JAKARTA, is located. The island of BORNEO is shared with MALAYSIA, while New Guinea is shared with PAPUA NEW GUINEA. Other larger and populated islands are SUMATRA and Sulawesi.

EARTHQUAKES AND TSUNAMIS

Because of its location on the edges of tectonic plates, Indonesia is prone to earthquakes, which cause TSUNAMIS (as exemplified in the 2004 tsunamis that violently hit the island of Sumatra). Indonesia also has many volcanoes. Terrain of the islands varies and includes mountains, rainforests, and miles of beaches. The country has a hot, humid tropical climate, with a more moderate climate in the highlands.

There are two seasons: the dry season from June to October, and the rainy season from November to March. It is hot all year round, although coastal regions are cooler. Indonesia is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna. Elephants, tigers, leopards, and orangutans live there, as well as sea turtles and Komodo dragons. The world’s largest flowers grow in Sumatra. Unfortunately, rainforests are rapidly disappearing from the region.

Indonesia’s history has added to its rich diversity of culture. From the 7th to the 14th century, Hindus and Buddhists formed several kingdoms on these islands. Arab traders later introduced Islam. In the early 16th century, Europeans in pursuit of the spice trade arrived. By the 17th century, the Dutch were the dominant colonial force in the region. Indonesia was still under Dutch rule when World War II broke out.

During the war, Japan conquered and occupied the Dutch colony. They found the Indonesian elite to be cooperative and several were decorated by the Japanese emperor in 1943. After the war, a group led by Sukarno declared the country’s independence. The Dutch attempted to quell the independence movement and regain control of Indonesia. After several years of bloody fighting, the Dutch accepted Indonesia’s independence. Sukarno was the first president. His government, now called the Old Order, saw military conflict with British Malaya and economic difficulties at home. In 1967, Army General Suharto took over, saying he could secure the country against an alleged coup attempt by communists. His 32-year reign is known as the New Order. Suharto’s corrupt regime brought wealth to himself and his family, and he was forced to step down in 1998 after massive popular demonstrations against him. During the next three years, the country had three presidents. In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono was elected president.

The culture of Indonesia has been influenced by its many immigrants. Most Indonesians are of Malay or Polynesian descent. The population also includes significant numbers from INDIA, CHINA, SAUDI ARABIA, IRAN, and Europe. The official language is Bahasa Indonesia, but English, Dutch, and local dialects are widely spoken as well.

Indonesian art shows influence of other cultures. Javanese and Balinese wayang kulit shadow theater shows are popular, as are famous Javanese and Balinese dances. Some islands are famous for their batik and itak cloth. The unique martial art of Silat originated in Indonesia. Indonesia is primarily a Muslim nation, but religious tolerance is widespread. Muslims account for 88 percent of the population, with 8 percent Christian, 2 percent Hindu, and 1 percent Buddhist.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Indonesia is blessed with a number of natural resources. The country is the second-largest exporter of natural gas. Other natural resources include gold, copper, tin, and oil. Indonesia’s agricultural products include rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber. The UNITED STATES, JAPAN, SINGAPORE, Malaysia, and Australia are Indonesia’s major trading partners. Agriculture or farming accounts for 45 percent of the workforce, while 16 percent work in industry, and 39 percent in service industries.

Indonesia faces many problems, both economic and social. The judicial system does not function well and the banking system is weak, making Indonesia a poor climate for foreign investment. There are ongoing threats against Western interests in Jakarta. The 2002 terrorist bombing of the Sari nightclub and a bomb explosion outside the Australian embassy in 2004 add to the unrest. Poverty is a problem, particularly in Jakarta. About 27 percent of the people live below the national poverty level.

Indiana

KNOWN AS THE Hoosier State, the north central state of Indiana (“Land of Indians”) was formed from the Northwest Territory in 1800 and entered the Union in 1816 as the 19th state. Roughly rectangular in shape, Indiana is approximately 270 mi (434 km) north to south and 140 mi (225 km) east to west. The geography of Indiana encompasses 36,420 square mi (94,327 square km), which makes it the 38th largest state in the UNITED STATES. It is 14th in population. Indiana is bounded on the north by Lake MICHIGAN and MICHIGAN, on the south by KENTUCKY, on the east by OHIO, and on the west by ILLINOIS. In addition to Indianapolis, the capital, Indiana’s largest cities are Fort Wayne, Evansville, South Bend, Gary, Hammond, Bloomington, Muncie, Lafayette, and Anderson.

Most of Indiana has a humid continental climate, with four distinct seasons, resulting in long, warm summers and cool winters. The southernmost area of the state has a humid subtropical climate, experiencing more frequent rainfall and less extreme temperatures in the winter. Northern Indiana may experience up to 40 in (101 cm) of snow in the winter, but the southern sections rarely receive more than 10 in (25 cm) a year. Temperatures range from highs of 70 to 80 degrees F (21 to 26 degrees C) to lows of 25 to 35 degrees F (-4 to 2 degrees C). The state experiences an annual precipitation rate of around 40 in (101 cm). Tornadoes are likely in the spring.

Indiana is divided into three geographic areas: the Great Lakes Plains of northern Indiana, the Till Plains found in central Indiana, and the Southern Plains and Lowlands of southern Indiana. The Great Lakes Plains contain large sand dunes along the shores of Lake Michigan. This landscape varies from flat to gently rolling areas, interspersed with a number of lakes and bogs. The soils in this area are generally acidic grays and browns.

The Till Plain is part of the Midwestern Corn Belt. The acidic gray and brown soils found in the low hills and valleys produce extremely fertile land. The more rugged terrain of the southernmost part of Indiana is located in the Southern Plains and Lowlands, which is covered by steep hills known as knobs. This area is home to a number of well-known caves, such as Wyandotte and Marengo Caves, and mineral springs such as those found in West Baden and French Lick.

Elevations in Indiana range from 320 ft (97 m) above sea level at the Ohio River to 1,257 ft (383 m) above sea level at Hoosier Hill. Bordering on Lake Michigan, Indiana lays claim to approximately 230 square mi (595 square km) of this major water source and to a 41-mi (66-mi) shoreline. Other Indiana rivers include the Ohio River, the Wabash River and its tributaries, the White River and the Tippecanoe River, and the Kankakee River. Saint Joseph and Saint Mary’s rivers converge at Fort Wayne in northeastern Indiana.

The state’s major lakes include Michigan Lake, Wawasee Lake, and Monroe Lake. Approximately 4.5 million acres of Indiana’s land area are forested, including the Beech-Maple Forest, the Oak-Hickory Forest, the Southern Floodplain Forest, and the Elm-Ash Forest. Indiana forests provide a home to tulip (the state tree), oak, hickory, maple, walnut, ash, spirea, barberry, and mock orange trees. 

Wildflowers include peony (the state flower), violet, daisy, columbine, gentian, trillium, and various kinds of orchids. Abundant wildlife in Indiana includes whitetail deer, raccoon, opossum, gray fox, coyote, beaver, rabbit, squirrel, skunk, muskrat, mink, and weasel. Bobcat and badger have been identified as endangered species in Indiana. The state’s game birds include wild turkey, ruffed grouse, quail, and pheasant.

Sparrows, blue jays, wrens, and cardinals (the state bird) are found throughout the state. Indiana is also home to 75 species of endangered birds, such as the peregrine falcon, Kirtland’s warbler, and the bald eagle. As a major industrial center, Indiana specializes in the iron, steel, and oil products industries. Bituminous coal, found mostly in southwestern Indiana, is also a major revenue producer for the state. Manufacturing in Indiana also includes the production of transportation equipment, motor vehicles and equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, electric and electronic equipment, mobile homes, farm machinery, wood office furniture, and pharmaceuticals.

The state’s major crops are corn, soybeans, wheat, oats, rye, and nursery and greenhouse products. Other successful agricultural activity revolves around the production of tomatoes, onions, popcorn, fruit, hay, tobacco, mint, and livestock. Oak, tulip, beech, and sycamore are the chief products of Indiana’s timber/lumber industry.

Indian Ocean

MEASURING approximately 26.5 million square mi (68.5 million square km), the Indian Ocean includes the Andaman Sea, ARABIAN SEA, BAY OF BENGAL, Flores Sea, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Java Sea, Mozambique Channel, PERSIAN GULF, RED SEA, Savu Sea, Straits of Malacca, Timor Sea, and other tributary water bodies. The ocean is located between Africa, Southern Ocean, Asia, and AUSTRALIA.

The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world’s five oceans (after the PACIFIC OCEAN and ATLANTIC OCEAN, but larger than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). The Southern Ocean was delineated in a spring 2000 decision by the International Hydrographic Organization, which consolidated a fifth world ocean from the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. This new ocean extends from the coast of ANTARCTICA north to 60 degrees South latitude or the Antarctic Treaty Limit. Five major choke points along commercial sea lanes provide access to the Indian Ocean. These waterways are the Suez Canal (EGYPT), BAB EL MANDEB (DJIBOUTIYEMEN), Strait of Hormuz (IRAN-OMAN), and Straits of Malacca (INDONESIA-MALAYSIA), and the Lombok Strait (INDONESIA).

The Indian Ocean has held the historic TRADE ROUTES from Occident to Orient since the dawn of maritime commerce in the ancient world. Spices, slaves, and marvelous though modest handcrafts moved among the many ports the Indian Ocean carried by centuries of monsoon winds and currents. This trade now bears the modern manufactured goods of industrialized nations and the petroleum required to fuel the world’s economies. Never an insular sea, the Indian Ocean now serves not only the ports of its own shores but the far reaches of the countries of Europe and the Americas.

Historical accounts include the tales of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman commercial and colonial exploits. The settlement of Madagascar by peoples from Indonesia in ancient times points to the reciprocal flow of culture and commerce from the east. Centuries of trade and exploration were carried out by the Islamic merchants and seaman of the Arabian Peninsula, who took their goods and their faith to the lands of the African coast, India, and Southeast Asia. Before the Europeans made good a sea passage to the waters of the Indian Ocean, Admiral Zheng He of the Ming Dynasty of China led several maritime expeditions across these fated waters from 1405 to 1433.

By 1497, Vasco da Gama navigated around the Cape of Good Hope and began the Portuguese fight for domination of the spice trade across the Indian Ocean. This model of bold commercial venture supported by national navies and prestige was followed by the Dutch, French, and British over the next two centuries. European colonial interests in the Indian Ocean LITTORAL continued until after World War II. The independence of regional states from their colonial masters, growth and development among the newly industrialized states, and the increased flows of manufactured goods and petroleum have made the Indian Ocean truly an international sea.

During the Cold War, the Indian Ocean was an arena of competition between East and West. Regional navies were often overshadowed by the number and modern capabilities of the U.S. and Soviet fleets. Establishment of a permanent support and operational base on the island of Diego Garcia, strategically central in the Indian Ocean, was a clear sign of the American intent to remain active in the region. The United States maintains the most active, modern, and capable military forces in the Indian Ocean.

Throughout the long history of foreign economic exploitation and domination, the Indian Ocean has continuously been a rich resource to the peoples of the region. It constantly supplied transportation routes and rich fisheries along the coasts. The Indian Ocean continues to be a major fishing ground with fleets from many nations vying for the limited resource. Fishing stocks are being depleted by a combination of overfishing and pollution along the Indian Ocean coasts. The overexploitation of fish stocks is mostly due to large fishing vessels operating illegally near the coast. The growth of regional populations, particularly in INDIA and Indonesia, will add pressure on the already challenged marine resources.

This population increase and industrial development creates major pollution problems in the most critical fishing areas. Industrial effluents contain heavy metals and chemical wastes. Pesticides and organic wastes flow untreated into the coastal waters from cities and agricultural land. Oil pollution from accidents, ballast dumping, and offshore oil extraction is on the increase. The nations that share the management and use of the Indian Ocean have no comprehensive plan for conservation and management of the resources or uses of this global asset.

Mineral resources and especially offshore petroleum extraction are continuing to grow as a commercial interest to nations. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of SAUDI ARABIA, IRAN, INDIA, and AUSTRALIA. An estimated 40 percent of the world’s offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, SOUTH AFRICA, Indonesia, SRI LANKA, and THAILAND. The mining of polymetallic nodules from the seabed remain a tempting, but technologically challenging operation.

Climate and weather patterns are dominated by the annual monsoon. This weather cycle is attributed to low atmospheric pressure over Southwest Asia created by hot, rising summer air, which causes southwest-tonortheast winds and currents during the summer months. A high pressure over North Asia created by cold, falling, winter air results in northeast-to-southwest winds during the winter months.

For half the year (April to October), the winds in this region are from the southwest, reversing in the other half of the year. This monsoon (season) weather pattern dominates the region on land and sea, setting the pace of life onshore and off. Tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean.

Primary adjoining arms of the Indian Ocean are the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The deepest known point is 25,443 ft (7,758 m), off the southern coast of Indonesia in the Java Trench. The Indian Ocean contains numerous islands, the largest of which are MADAGASCAR and SRI LANKA. Smaller islands that constitute independent countries include the MALDIVES, the SEYCHELLES, and MAURITIUS. The major rivers that flow into the Indian Ocean include the waters of the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers from Africa, as well as the IRRAWADDY, Brahmaputra, GANGES, and INDUS from east to west along Asia. The combined waters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers mix with the Indian Ocean via the Persian Gulf.

The Indian Ocean is of geostrategic interest as it is a transit route for a major portion of the world’s oil supply. In addition the commerce flowing by ship from Asia to Europe also sails this sea. Some major ports and harbors of the Indian Ocean are Chennai (Madras; India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban (SOUTH AFRICA), JAKARTA (Indonesia), KOLKATA (Calcutta; India), Melbourne (Australia), MUMBAI (Bombay; India), and Richards Bay (South Africa).