Congo River

FROM ITS SOURCE on a savanna PLATEAU just south of Lake TANGANIKA, the Congo River flows some 2,880 mi (4,630 km) through equatorial africa before eventually emptying into the ATLANTIC OCEAN. While no other major river in the world transects the equator even once, the Congo River twice crosses the equator in its journey to the sea. The river flows through an immense and relatively flat drainage basin that lies more than 1,000 ft (300 m) above sea level. The Mitumba Mountains and the Ruwenzori Range form the eastern rim of the basin, while high plateaus rim the drainage basin in the north and south. A narrow westward outlet allows for the exit of the basin’s surface water.

At 1.34 million square mi (3.46 million square km), the Congo River basin is the second-largest drainage basin in the world and receives an average of 60 in (152 cm) of rain annually. This significant precipitation total is attributable to the fact that the river flows through both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres in a humid equatorial climate. As it is always the rainy season on one side of the equator, the Congo River avoids any notable change in volume from alternating wet and dry seasons. 

By contrast, rivers in the savanna region of Africa often experience significant flow reductions during the dry season. Consequently, though only approximately 370 mi (600 km) longer than the NIGER RIVER, the Congo River discharges nearly eight times as much water into the Atlantic Ocean. Emptying into the ocean, the flow rate of the Congo River is second in the world behind only the AMAZON RIVER. However, as it is draining a basin in a humid equatorial climate, the tremendous discharge of the Congo River represents only 3 percent of its potential basin runoff.

Looping north and west in a great arc from its headwaters in the Katanga province, the Congo River receives input from several substantial tributaries. These rivers include the Kasai, Ubangi, Luvua, which emanates from Lake Mweru in the far southeast, and the Lualaba, the principal stream of the upper course, considered by many to be the main branch of the Congo. In its relentless journey to the Atlantic Ocean, the width of the Congo varies from 3.5 mi (8 km) to 8 mi (12.8 km) and is divisible into three distinct sections—the Upper, Middle, and Lower Congo.

Characterized by waterfalls, lakes, and rapids, the Upper Congo includes a series of seven cataracts and rapids known as Stanley Falls. Extending over 60 mi (96 km), Stanley Falls demarcates the lower end of the Upper Congo and gives way to a lengthy stretch of navigable river along the Middle Congo. These navigable waters of the Middle Congo terminate just above Livingstone Falls and immediately downstream from the capital city of Kinshasha. A series of more than 30 cataracts, Livingstone Falls represents a turbulent 220 mi (354 km) stretch of the Congo River. Below the falls, the Lower Congo travels for approximately 200 mi (322 km) across the nearly level coastal plain before terminating in the Atlantic Ocean.

With an estuary approximately 7 mi (11 km) wide, the Congo River differs from other African rivers such as the Niger and the NILE in that it does not form a significant DELTA upon entering the ocean. However, it is similar to its African counterparts in that it has only limited navigability for significant portions of its course.

From its entry point into the Atlantic Ocean, for example, the Congo is navigable for only 85 mi (137 km) before reaching a series of rapids at the major fishing port of Matadi. Despite its inherent difficulty, river transport is an even greater necessity in the waters of the Congo than elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa. This same turbulence that renders many stretches of the Congo River impassable also contributes to the river’s potential for hydroelectric power.

Owing to the speed and volume of its waters, the Congo River basin is the potential source of approximately 13 percent of the world’s total hydroelectric power. Inga Falls, some 25 mi (40 km) upstream from the river port of Matadi, represents the largest hydroelectric power potential in Africa (and perhaps the world). Here water cascades downstream at a rate of 150,000 cubic ft (43,000 cubic m) per second as the river falls nearly 330 ft (100 m) in only 8.7 mi (14 km).

Efforts to tap into the estimated 43,000 megawatts of generating capacity have thus far captured only a fraction of the potential power. Completion of two construction phases, Inga I (1972) and Inga II (1982), has netted only 1,700 megawatts of hydroelectricity. In 1999, plans for additional Inga stages were announced—with the ultimate objective being the capture of the entire power of Inga Falls by 2010. Despite its hydroelectric potential, concerns have been raised over the project’s impact on the number of fish species and the viability of commercial inland fishing.

Like its river and tributaries, the entire Congo basin is difficult to traverse. Those pockets of the basin containing tremendous mineral wealth, including diamonds, cobalt and copper, have suffered intensive exploitation for decades. However, vast expanses of forest remain untouched and are home to such rare animals as the okapi and gorilla. Much of the forested basin has experienced only minimal human impact, such as when the Pygmies and other indigenous peoples use the forest for their hunting and gathering needs.

Agricultural activity typically includes the cultivation of bananas, maize, and sweet potatoes, as well as more commercially oriented crops such as coffee and sugar. Other economic activity involves raising goats and tending livestock. Despite only fairly limited economic exploitation of the region, the mineral wealth and hydroelectric potential of the Congo River basin are likely to attract increasing attention and activity in the future.

Democratic Republic of Congo

THE DEMOCRATIC Republic of Congo (DRC) is strategically located as the geographic centerpiece of Africa. Smaller in area than only SUDAN and ALGERIA, the DRC is the third-largest country on the African continent and is slightly less than one-fourth the size of the UNITED STATES.

ECONOMIC DISTRESS

Though possessing tremendous mineral resources, as well as the largest forest reserves and the largest hydroelectric potential in Africa, the DRC remains mired in economic distress owing to a history of exploitation. This exploitation began in 1885 when King Leopold of BELGIUM gained control of the area then known as the Congo Free State and treated the land and its people as his own personal fiefdom. In 1908, it became a colony of Belgium and remained under Belgian control until gaining independence in 1960.

Independence, however, did not bring an end to the troubles facing the DRC. Woefully unprepared for selfdetermination, the country quickly came under the dictatorial rule of Mobutu Sese-Seko. For the next 35 years, the DRC remained under Mobutu’s corrupt and brutal control until a military occupation of Kinshasha ended his one-party rule in 1997. Yet the rewards of deposing Mobutu remained indeterminate, as the country has since been wracked with ethnic strife and civil war involving both internal and external forces. It is this continuing legacy of instability that has mired the Democratic Republic of Congo in a state of poverty.

RICH RESOURCES

Despite being one of the poorest countries of Africa, the DRC could be one of the continent’s richest. The CONGO RIVER basin and its vast resources dominate the country’s landscape. Emanating from Lake Mweru in the far southeast, the Congo River crosses the equator twice before reaching the ATLANTIC OCEAN some 2,880 mi (4,630 km) later. Carrying the second largest volume of water in the world, the river could provide substantial hydroelectric power. Heavy annual rainfall averaging along the equator contributes to the river’s flow, as well as to the equatorial rainforest covering more than 50 percent of the country.

The forest contains a tremendous variety of flora and fauna, including such rare animals as the gorilla. Further south of the equator, as well as to the highlands of the east, the rainforest gives way to savanna GRASSLANDS where lions, antelope, and giraffes can be found.

The size of the DRC, which offers such resource potential, also serves as a liability. With a predominantly rural population composed of over 200 major ethnic groups speaking more than 700 different languages and dialects, the Democratic Republic of Congo must improve its transportation and communication network. The country’s population is clustered between the forest and highlands of the east, and in the strip of land stretching west from to the 25 mi (40 km) strip of coastline along the Atlantic Ocean through the capital of Kinshasha and into East Kasai.

Most of the people are involved in subsistence agriculture and other primary activities, including mining. Cash crops, including coffee, cocoa, and palm oil, are also important, though difficult to export due to the country’s woefully inadequate infrastructure. With a declining economy, a history of conflict and corruption, and billions of dollars in external debt, the Democratic Republic of Congo will remain faced with hardship into the foreseeable future.

Congo

THE REPUBLIC OF Congo is located in western Africa and covers an area slightly smaller than MONTANA. It is bordered by GABON to the west, CAMEROON to the north, the Democratic Republic of the CONGO (formerly Zaire) to the east and south, the Angolan Cabinda enclave to the southeast, and the ATLANTIC OCEAN to the east. Congo’s border with the Democratic Republic of Congo is the country’s only natural boundary, which follows the CONGO and Ubangi rivers. Congo gained its independence from FRANCE on August 16, 1960.

Congo has a tropical climate that is warm and humid with heavy rainfall occurring mainly from March through June. Dense tropical RAINFORESTs start at the equator and cover the northern part of the country. South of the equator, there is a savanna area with diverse wildlife, including antelope, giraffe, cheetah, and crocodile, along with many birds and snakes. Also encountered in the southern part of Congo are central plateaus, fertile valleys, and coastal plain and forested floodplain areas.

In the Congolese valleys are grown the primary subsistence crops of cassava and yams. Export crops, raised on plantations in this area, consist of sugarcane, tobacco, coffee, cacao, palm products, rice, corn, and groundnuts.

Many of the rivers in Congo play a large part in the economic and commercial life of the Congolese people. There are over 2,300 mi (3,700 km) of navigable rivers in the country. The main river routes are along the Congo and Ubangi rivers. Brazzaville, the capital of Congo, is a large river port along the Congo River. Because of the effectiveness of transportation along the rivers and the vastness of the northern rainforests, the Congolese road system has barely been improved, and today consists only of 7,450 mi (12,000 km) of roads.

The Congolese forests constitute one of the major natural resources in Congo and are the primary agricultural export of Congo. These timbers were the top export of Congo before the discovery of oil in the country and now constitute only 7 percent of export earnings. The majority of these trees are oil palms and okoume. Oil was first discovered in Congo in 1957 at Pointe Indienne. Since then, oil has been Congo’s largest export, making up 89 percent of the export earnings in 2001. At that time, the Republic of Congo was producing 275,000 barrels of oil per day.

Congo is one of the most urbanized countries of Africa with over 85 percent of its total population living in the southwestern part of the country. Brazzaville has the highest population at over 800,000 people, followed by Pointe Noire with 450,000 people. The rest of the Congolese people live mainly in small cities or villages along the railroad connecting Brazzaville, located roughly 310 mi (500 km) inland along the Congo River, to Pointe Noire on the southern Atlantic Ocean.

Along this railway lives more than 75 percent of the Congolese population. Even though Congo has a relatively concentrated population in these areas, the overall population density is low because vast areas of swamps and rainforest are uninhabited.

The ethnic diversity in Congo is also great. The Bantu people make up the majority of the population and include four groups. The largest group of the Bantu people is the Kongo, making up about 48 percent of the population. They are mostly farmers or traders, live primarily around Brazzaville, and speak Bantu. The Teke or Bateke, another Bantu-speaking group, make up 17 percent of the population. The remaining Bantu peoples are the Sangha and the M’Bochi. Also present in Congo are the country’s first inhabitants, the Pygmies. There are fewer than 100,000 Pygmies in Congo today, and they live mainly in small tribal groups in the forests along the Congo River and in the rainforests north of the equator.

Computer Mapping

COMPUTER MAPPING IS the general term used to describe the process of developing digital maps from aerial photographs, satellite images, global positioning systems (GPS) records, paper maps, and other archival data sources. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) are currently the most common implementation of computer mapping systems. A GIS consists of an organized collection of computer hardware, software and trained personnel designed to capture and manipulate geographically referenced data for generating digital maps. Digital maps have the capacity to store information that is more detailed and allow the map features to link to external databases. One application of a GISbased mapping system is automated mapping (AM), where digital inventory maps of facilities such as telephone and utility lines are linked to database information to aid in facilities management (FM). The overlaid system is known as AM/FM.

At the core of the computer mapping process is data capture, conversion, and verification. The availability of many forms of existing digital (such as satellite images and aerial photographs) and analogue (such as paper maps and statistical tables) data demands a level of flexibility to deal with these different formats during the mapping project. The general stages involved in computer mapping are to obtain the digital data, digitize any relevant analogue data, conduct a ground survey if necessary, align the digital data layers with a common reference system, and develop a continuous surface from the digital maps. The result is a spatial database that can be queried to support planning and decision-making goals.

Satellite images and aerial photographs are the most widely used inputs for many digital mapping projects. The computer-driven process of making the raw satellite image and aerial photographs useful is termed image analysis or photogrammetry. These forms of raw data are already digital, and together with their affordable cost and frequency of collection, they provide significant advantages over other data sources. In addition, since the data is already in a digital format, errors based on data conversions are minimized. But in situations where data of high spatial resolution is required, such as for facilities planning using street networks, digitized maps and GPS data are needed to represent local-level map details.

The paper map is also a valuable input source for digital mapping projects. These paper maps are mostly topographic (showing earth features) or thematic (showing specific features), and drawn to a certain scale, and the attributes of features are encoded by colors and symbols. An important characteristic of the map is that geographic features are identified by a common coordinate or reference system. The common reference ensures that identical features are at the same coordinate position in all the digital database layers. This common referencing serves to integrate the various layers of the spatial database.

The process of manually entering data for use in a mapping project involves iterative stages of recording the spatial data, entering the attribute data, verifying the data entries, and linking the spatial and attribute data. For paper maps, a digitizer device, with its flat tablet and a connected cross-haired mouse, is used to trace each of the geographic features manually. At the particular map scale, all the features of interest on the map are encoded as points, lines, or areas, depending on how they are represented on the paper map. The final digital map elements are checked for correctness and may involve tasks such as verifying object shapes or field checks. A unique identification number is used to link the digital map objects to attribute data entered into a database. The discrete map objects consisting of points, lines, and areas are called vector data.

Document scanners are also used to convert analogue to digital data. The scanning process generates raster data as the paper map is captured as a two dimensional array of cells. The resolution of the digital data is characterized by the size of the cells. Each cell contains information about the component elements of the paper map. A smaller cell size (greater resolution), determined by the document scanner capabilities, means that any particular object on the map will be defined by more cells.

Issues such as increased computer storage requirements arising from more cells and the desired accuracy of the digital map are challenges for this stage of the process. The scanned image will inevitably contain imperfections. Each grid cell needs to be encoded with information about the geographic feature it contains.

Moreover, the image space must correspond to a map coordinate system. These tasks are accomplished with image analysis procedures that modify the cell attributes. The final digital map elements are checked for correctness and may involve tasks such as verifying object shapes or “ground truthing,” after which the image is ready for integration into existing spatial databases.

Georeferencing is an important part of creating the spatial database. During the georeferencing process, the raw digital data is projected so that the individual map objects are correctly arranged in some specified map coordinate system. The process begins by selecting identifiable objects on the digital map for which the real world (latitude/longitude) coordinates are known.

The selected objects must be evenly distributed across the map surface as the georeferencing process uses them as fixed anchors to warp the entire digital map space to fit a selected coordinate system. A common coordinate referencing system ensures that all the map layers can be coupled.

Comoros

COMOROS IS ONE of the world’s poorest, and also most politically unstable countries. Located off the east coast of Africa, at the northern end of the MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL, the Comoros developed under the mixed cultural influences of the Arab and East African world, plus European colonialism in the 19th century. The island group consists of Njazidja (also known as Grande Comore), the largest, with the capital of Moroni, plus the smaller islands of Mwali (Mohéli) and Nzwani (Anjouan). A fourth island, Mahoré (Mayotte), has retained its administrative links with FRANCE, despite intense local and international pressure. The islands have suffered from nearly 20 coups since independence in 1975, and further disintegration was heralded by proclamations of independence by two other islands, Mwali and Nzwani, in 1997. But a new attempt at compromise, promising a greater degree of local autonomy, was signed in 2001.

The islands of the Comoros are volcanic in origin and of varying ages. The most recently formed, Njazidja, has two major volcanoes, the extinct La Grille in the north (3,300 ft or 1,000 m), and Kartala in the south (7,791 ft or 2,361 m), which last erupted in 1977. Nzwani and Mwali are geologically older, and have had time to form a richer soil from erosion and weathering. Most of the islands were formerly covered in lush tropical vegetation, and Nzwani and Mahoré have extensive coral reefs; both forests and reefs provide rich habitat for rare and interesting wildlife, such as the Livingstone fruit bat, the world’s largest bat, with a wingspan of up to 6.6 ft (2 m), and the coelacanth fish, the “living fossil” with limblike fins, thought to have been extinct for 70 million years until its rediscovery in 1938.

Located on the TRADE ROUTES between the Arab world and East Africa, the islands were named by early Arab geographers kamar or kumr, meaning “moon.” Early immigration from southeast Asia to MADAGASCAR left a small Malayo-Indonesian population, followed by immigrants from the East African coast, then settlements of Arab traders known as the Shirazi from the 15th century. This mixture of Malay, Arab, and African ethnic groups created the unique culture of the Comoros today and continues to manifest itself in strong ties to various states of the INDIAN OCEAN basin. 

The Shirazi Arabs set themselves up as rulers and divided the islands into numerous sultanates. For many years they controlled much of the slave trade from east Africa to French plantations in Madagascar, MAURITIUS, and Réunion Island. Internal conflicts led to French occupation, first on Mahoré in 1841, then gradually over the other islands. The last sultan abdicated in 1912, and the islands became a formal part of the French colony of Madagascar until 1946. Internal self-rule was granted in 1961, followed by a referendum in 1974, in which 95 percent of the population voted for independence, but not on Mahoré, where 65 percent voted to remain part of France. This conflict, and the struggle between socialist and conservative Islamic groups, has resulted in the high political instability over the past four decades.

Economically, colonialism wrecked the Comoros, creating a system of near complete dependence on products not suitable for domestic consumption. After slavery was banned in French colonies in 1848, planters turned the islands into exclusive zones for rare tropical products, especially ylang-ylang (used in perfumes and soaps) and vanilla. The Comoros remains the world’s largest producer of these two products, but is unable to feed itself and relies heavily on foreign aid, mostly from France, but increasingly from conservative Islamic states in the PERSIAN GULF. Islamic ties are strong, stressed in the official name, the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros, and symbolized by the crescent moon (from the name of the country) used in the country’s flag, which also stresses the desire for unity among all of the islands, depicting four stars, rather than three.

Colorado

COLORADO IS ONE of the Rocky Mountain states located in the west-central part of the UNITED STATES. All of Colorado is more than 3,300 ft (1,000 m) above sea level. With an average elevation of 6,800 ft (2,070 m), Colorado is the highest of all the states. Colorado is a Spanish word meaning “reddish colored” and was the name early Spanish explorers gave to the Colorado River when they first explored the region in the late 1500s. The state is bordered by WYOMING and NEBRASKA in the north, KANSAS and NEBRASKA in the east, NEW MEXICO and OKLAHOMA in the south, and UTAH in the west.

In the southwestern corner of the state, four state boundaries come together (New Mexico, ARIZONA, Utah, and Colorado) forming what is known as the Four Corners. Colorado, like Wyoming, is rectangular in shape with a combined area of 104,100 square mi (269,837 square km), making it the eighth largest of the 50 states. Colorado has 4,301,261 residents, ranking 24th among the 50 states. With only 41 persons per square mi (106 per square km), the state ranks 37th in population density. The state’s 10 largest towns, all located in a 175-mi- (282-km-) long corridor along the Front Range from Fort Collins in the north to Pueblo in the south, account for 45 percent of the total population. Denver is the state’s largest city as well as the capital.

The ROCKY MOUNTAINS, running from north to south through the middle two-fifths of the state, are the most dominant physical feature. In contrast, the eastern two-fifths of the state is part of the Great Plains, a relatively flat, treeless plain that extends from the mountains eastward to the Nebraska and Kansas state borders. To the west of the Rockies, the Colorado Plateau covers the remaining one-fifth of the land. In addition, Colorado includes small sections of two other natural regions, the Wyoming, or Green River,

Basin and the Middle Rocky Mountains, both of which lie in the extreme northwestern part of the state. Colorado also straddles the Continental Divide, which separates rivers flowing to the PACIFIC OCEAN and the Gulf of Mexico. Lands west of the divide whose waters flow to the Pacific are referred to as the Western Slope, while those to the east with waters flowing to the ATLANTIC are referred to as the Eastern Slope.

Five mountain ranges make up the Colorado Rocky Mountains: the Front Range, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the Park Range, the Sawatch Range, and the San Juan Mountains. The mountains are not part of a single highland area but are divided into two roughly parallel groups. The eastern mountain belt includes the Laramie Mountains, the Front Range, and part of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. The highest peaks of these eastern ranges are Blanca Peak, Longs Peak, and Mount Evans, all of which are more than 14,250 ft (4,340 m) high. Pikes Peak, the state’s most famous landmark at the southern end of the Front Range, rises to 14,110 ft (4,301 m). The western belt of high mountains includes the Park Range, the Sawatch Range, and the San Juan Mountains. The Sawatch Range contains Mount Elbert, the state’s highest peak at 14,433 ft (4,399 m). The Sawatch Range and the San Juan Mountains combined contain 27 of the state’s mountains over 14,000 ft (4,250 m). 

Several broad, high-altitude valleys and mountain basins called parks separate the mountain belts from each other. The parks and valleys between the two mountain belts of the southern Rockies are broad, relatively flat, grass-covered areas. The principal ones are, from north to south, North Park, Middle Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. The Great Plains region covering the eastern twofifths of the state is a broad expanse of flat or rolling prairies that rise from about 4,000 ft (1,200 m) above sea level along the Kansas state line to approximately 7,000 ft (2,100 m) above sea level at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The Great Plains region is not uniform throughout the state and is often divided into the High Plains, the Colorado Piedmont, and the Raton section. The High Plains are mostly level lands that extend along the eastern border with Kansas. 

The Colorado Piedmont, which lies to the west of the High Plains, is more varied in relief with low ridges, steep bluffs, flat-topped mesas, and conical hills referred to locally as called tepee buttes. The Raton section to the south of the Piedmont is more rugged, with numerous mesas and buttes of volcanic origin and narrow, rocky canyons that often appear out of nowhere. The plains region is primarily a dryland farming area used for growing wheat and grazing cattle, although the use of irrigation has allowed an increase in corn and sorghum production in areas where groundwater is sufficient to support pumping.

COLORADO PLATEAU

The Colorado Plateau occupies the western two-fifths of Colorado. Originally named by explorer John Wesley Powell, the plateau is in fact a huge basin ringed by highlands and filled with dozens of separate plateaus that range from about 5,000 to 11,000 ft (1,500 to 3,400 m) high. As a physiographic “province,” the region is geologically and topographically distinct from other parts of the west remaining structurally intact for the past 500 million years or more. Sprawling across southeastern Utah, northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and western Colorado, the Colorado Plateau covers a land area of 130,000 square mi (336,700 square km). Of America’s 50 states, only ALASKA, TEXAS, CALIFORNIA, and MONTANA are larger.

One of the plateau’s unique features in Colorado is the Black Canyon of the Gunnison, a deep gorge cut by the Gunnison River that is deeper than its more famous neighbor, the Grand Canyon, in places.

Colorado’s earliest inhabitants were Native Americans who settled in the mesa country more than 2,000 years ago. The first European to enter the region was probably the Spanish conquistador Francisco Vásquez de Coronado in the 16th century, with Spain claiming the area in 1706. France also laid claim to the area as part of its Louisiana Territory, although no settlements were established. The United States bought the area north of the Arkansas River and east of the Rocky Mountains as part of the LOUISIANA PURCHASE in 1803.

Early expeditions to the area explored routes opened earlier by the famous mountain men, trappers, and fur traders. While Bent’s Fort along the Arkansas River became one of the best-known trading posts in the region, settlement did not begin until the United States acquired the remainder of present-day Colorado from MEXICO in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. It was the discovery of gold at Cherry Creek (present-day Denver) in 1858 that brought large numbers of settlers to Colorado. Interestingly, the area was part of the Kansas Territory at the time. Measures proposing statehood for Colorado were introduced in the U.S. Congress in 1864, although Congress did not pass the bill granting Colorado’s statehood until 1876.

The mining booms of the late 1850s spurred Colorado’s initial growth. The state’s economy broadened when irrigated agriculture developed, and by the late 19th century, livestock raising had become dominant on the eastern plains. Early industrial growth was based on the processing of minerals and agricultural products. In the second half of the 20th century, the industrial and service sectors expanded as did winter resorts and summer recreational opportunities.

Manufacturing is dominated by the processing of local raw materials and by technology-dependent light industries. Leading manufactures include the production of scientific instruments, food processing, and the making of industrial machinery. The brewing of beer is the leading employer among food-processing industries, although the state has a diverse selection of industries preparing and packaging Colorado’s farm output.

Colorado is the nation’s fourth-largest producer of cattle. The sale of livestock and livestock products (mostly cattle and calves) accounted for 72 percent of farm income in 2002. Western Colorado is the leading sheepraising area in the state. The sheep are raised for both wool and meat, especially spring lambs. Hogs and dairy products contribute significantly to the state’s agricultural economy as well.

Wheat is the leading cash crop, raised primarily on the High Plains. Corn is the second most important crop, although most of the corn is fed directly to livestock. In some plains areas, barley, grain sorghum, and oats are also grown, often in rotation with wheat. In addition, many stock farms raise both wheat and cattle. The production of fossil fuels is by far the most valuable resource extraction, representing four-fifths of the state’s mineral output and natural gas the leading individual mineral product. Most of this production takes place in the northwestern part of the state.

Colombia

COLOMBIA IS A country located in northwestern South America. Named for Christopher Columbus, it is the only South American country to have coastline on both the CARIBBEAN SEA and the PACIFIC OCEAN. The fifth-largest country in South America, Colombia is a nation of great geographic contrasts. From the 16th through 19th centuries, Colombia was a Spanish colony. In the early 1800s, the country gained its independence as part of Gran Colombia, consisting of modern-day Colombia, VENEZUELA, ECUADOR, and PANAMA. By 1830, Venezuela and Ecuador had separated from Colombia. In 1903, Panama also broke away from Colombia.

The Colombian ANDES consists of three ranges, or cordilleras. The Cordillera Occidental, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera Oriental branch off from each other just north of Colombia’s border with Ecuador and run parallel to the north and northwest. While the Andes in Colombia are not as high as in some other South American countries, they have still traditionally posed a barrier to effective communication in the country. 

At the same time, they have provided Colombia with natural resources. The Cordillera Oriental is a major source of emeralds, allowing Colombia to become the world’s leading producer of the precious stone. Colombia is the world’s second leading producer of coffee; most is grown in the Andean highlands at altitudes of approximately 3,000 ft (914 m) to 6,000 ft (1,828 m).

The Andean highlands are the most densely populated region of Colombia. During the 19th and 20th centuries, between 60 and 70 percent of the country’s population lived in the 15 percent of the territory located above 3,330 ft (1,006 m). Historically, the Andes have been the center of political and economic power in the country. Before the arrival of Europeans, Native American settlements concentrated in the Andes. Most notable were the Chibchas, a sedentary group who lived near modern-day Bogotá. This region also attracted early Spanish colonists in the 1500s because of its mineral resources such as gold, a more pleasant climate than the tropical lowlands, and the potential labor force of the Native Americans.

In 1538, the Spanish founded the city of Bogotá in the Cundinamarca basin because of the fertile soil and temperate climate. As the capital of Colombia, Bogotá became and continues to be the political, cultural, and artistic center of Colombia. By the early 21st century, the city had nearly 7 million inhabitants. Other major cities in the highlands include Medellín and Cali. Located in the Antioquia region, Medellín prospered in the 19th century from the coffee industry. Residents invested much of the coffee profits in factories, making the city into Colombia’s industrial, banking, and commercial center. Cali can be found in the Cauca Valley, a rich agricultural area. At the end of the 20th century, both Medellín and Cali served as centers for the illegal drug trade.

Two major river valleys play important roles in the Colombian highlands. The Cauca Valley is a narrow rift valley through which the Cauca River flows. The Magdalena River Valley is navigable for 600 mi (965 km) from the Caribbean coast. Until well into the 20th century, the Magdalena River was highland Colombia’s main link with the outside world, as people and goods traveled up and down the river. However, there were limitations to transportation along the river, as it possessed a difficult entry to its mouth and numerous rapids. Travelers sometimes needed as long as two months to travel along the tropical and mosquito-infested river. The Magdalena Valley has also been an important source of petroleum for Colombia.

Colombia possesses tropical lowlands along both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The Pacific coast is more sparsely populated. The natural conditions along the Pacific coast, such as the heat, heavy rainfall, and dense forests, have traditionally inhibited large settlements. The Pacific coast has a large Afro-Colombian population. Many of the region’s inhabitants practice subsistence agriculture. Buenaventura is the main Pacific Port and is connected by rail to Cali.

Three main port cities dominate the Caribbean coast of Colombia. Founded in 1533, Cartagena was the principal Spanish colonial port in northern South America. By the 19th century, Baranquilla and Santa Marta were the country’s main ports. The region around Santa Marta also became an important banana producing area. All three Caribbean ports have been important in connecting the outside world to the main population centers of Colombia in the Andes. Historically, communication took place via the Magdalena River.

The southeastern plains and jungles of Colombia comprise over half of the country’s territory. However, the region contains just over 1 percent of the population. Located beyond the eastern Andes mountains, the oriente covers some 250,000 square mi (647,947 square km), representing about 60 percent of the country’s total area. The region is roughly divided into two parts by the Guaviare River. The northern section of the region is known as the llanos, which is an area of grasslands used mainly for ranching. The llanos in turn are divided into two parts. The llanos arriba, or high plains, are closer to the Andes, receive more rainfall, and are used more for agriculture. The llanos abajo, or lower plains, receive much less rainfall and are used principally for grazing. The southern section of the oriente consists largely of tropical rainforest that reaches into the Amazon jungle. By the late 20th century, the southeastern section of the country had become more important thanks to the discovery of significant oil deposits.