Antarctica

THE WORLD’S fifth-largest continent, Antarctica is home to the South Pole. This continent of almost 98 percent ice and 2 percent barren rock holds the distinction of being the coldest, windiest, driest, and highest continent. Antarctica covers some 5.4 million square mi (14 million square km), and has no indigenous people, but seasonal staff from 1,000 to 4,000 people. The continent’s highest point is Vinson Massif at 16,066 ft (4,897 m) and lowest point is the Bentley Subglacial Trench at -8,382 ft (-2,555 m).

Frequent, gusty winds blow from the interior sections toward the coast, and blizzards are common along the foot of the plateau. Volcanoes are scattered along areas of West Antarctica, and large icebergs frequently break off from the ice shelf. Cold temperatures are spread across the continent. The higher elevations of East Antarctica provide the coldest temperatures. A more moderate climate is found on the Antarctic Peninsula, where high temperatures average closer to freezing.

Although the climate is incredibly harsh and dry, plant species, albeit small in size, are numerous. Hundreds of algae species are scattered across the land, as well as around 100 species of moss, 350 species of lichen, and 2 grass species. The subantarctic islands surrounding Antarctica have a wider range of flora. About 45 bird species populate the area south of the Antarctica Convergence, and a few penguins and petrels actually live on the continent. The waters surrounding Antarctica are full of seabirds, fish, seals, and whales.

The continent remained untouched by humans until the 19th century. In 1773, British sea captain, James Cook was the first to cross the ANTARCTIC CIRCLE, but never saw any of the landmass. Almost five decades later, in 1819, the Russian naval officer Fabian von Bellingshausen discovered some of the islands. However, it was not until a year later that British naval officers William Smith and Edward Bransfield discovered the landmass. A few months later in November 1820, an American sealer, Nathaniel Palmer, also discovered the continent.

In 1822, another American sealer, Captain John Davis, became the first person on record to land on the continent. For the remainder of the decade, British, French, and American expeditions navigated the land and proved that Antarctica was indeed a continent. In 1838, Lt. Charles Wilkes of the U.S. Navy explored some 1,200 miles of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Antarctic Circle

The Antarctic Circle is an imaginary line located at 66.5 degrees south latitude or 23.5 degrees northward of the South Pole. It marks the southernmost location where the sun can be seen on June 22 (the Southern Hemisphere’s winter solstice) and the northernmost location where the midnight sun is visible on December 21 (the Southern Hemisphere’s summer solstice).

On June 22 and again on December 21, the circle of illumination, formed by the sun’s rays striking the Earth, extends from the edge of the Antarctic Circle in the south to the ARCTIC CIRCLE in the north. On June 22, the area within the Antarctic Circle experiences 24 hours of darkness and on December 21 it receives 24 hours of sunlight. The name Antarctic comes from the Greek arktos, or “bear,” in reference to the area’s position below the Great Bear constellation (Ursa Major). British naval captain James Cook was the first to cross the Antarctic Circle in 1773. Exploration of the region within the Antarctic Circle resumed in 1820 when the explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen received support from Russian Tzar Alexander I to explore the south polar region. On January 26, 1820, Bellingshausen’s ship, the Vostok, crossed the Antarctic Circle, becoming the first to do so since Cook in 1773. Other early explorers of the region include English naval captain Edward Bransfield and American seal hunter Nathaniel Palmer.

Anguilla

ANGUILLA IS ONE of the smallest and least developed islands in the CARIBBEAN SEA. It was administered as a British colony along with SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS until 1971. Its inhabitants did not wish to remain a dependency of its larger neighbors when they achieved independence in 1983, and Anguilla opted instead to retain its status as an overseas dependency of the UNITED KINGDOM (UK).

Unlike St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla is not made up of volcanic peaks with fertile soil and abundant rainfall, but instead consists of flat, semiarid coral and limestone formations that are generally unproductive for any sort of agriculture. This marks the main contrast between the two arcs of the Lesser Antilles: the older arc, further to the east, was once volcanic but sank beneath the sea; the tips became covered in limestone and coral and slowly reemerged from the sea, but rarely higher than 330 ft (100 m). This is the case for Anguilla and its closest neighbors, the French dependencies of St. Martin and St. Barthélemy to the south and the British Virgin Islands to the west.

Anguilla also includes some smaller islands, Scrub and Dog, and the Prickley Pear Cays, plus the tiny island of Sombrero, with a lighthouse important for regional shipping. Anguilla is located on the strategic Anegada Passage, a primary shipping route between the ATLANTIC OCEAN and the PANAMA CANAL, but lacking any substantial port or harbor, it has been unable to take advantage of this position. The terrain is mostly rocky, with sparse scrub and few trees. Some areas do produce small quantities of tobacco and vegetables or support cattle. Other areas are dedicated to commercial salt manufacture through evaporation ponds. The economy relies instead on tourism—with its excellent beaches and reefs—plus boat building and offshore financial services, though none of these industries produces sufficient revenue to allow the country to sever its ties with the UK, which provides heavy subsidies. 

Originally named by the Spanish anguilla or “eel” because its long narrow shape, the island had no interest for the gold-seeking Spaniards. It was not until the 1650s that the first settlers claimed the island for Britain. Administered with St. Kitts and Nevis from 1825, it never developed a sugar economy like theirs, and when the three islands achieved internal self-rule in 1967, Anguilla declared its intentions to separate from the other two (located over 62 mi or 100 km to the southwest). The government, with British support, is attempting to develop its tourism industry but has been hampered by successive hurricane damage, notably Hurricane Luis in 1995.

Angola

A COUNTRY LOCATED along the southwest coast of Africa, the republic of Angola is a vast territory divided into 18 provinces, one of which, Cabinda is an exclave within neighboring CONGO. The Berlin Conference of 1885–86 determined the current borders with the Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the CONGO, ZAMBIA, and NAMIBIA. Portuguese is the official language, but Umbundo and several other African languages are also spoken in rural areas. Angola has a semi-presidentialist system, with the president being both chief of state and head of government.

From a coastal plain, the land rises in stages toward the high interior plateaus, covered mainly with grasslands and bushes. There are tropical forests in the north, and a rocky desert occupies the southwest corner. Angola’s climate is tropical, humid in the north with a cool dry season (May to September) and a warm rainy season (October to April), and becomes semiarid in the south.

Humans have lived in the area that is now Angola since prehistoric times, with Bantu-speaking peoples settling there about 2,000 years ago. The Portuguese arrived in the 1480s and built fortresses and outposts along the coast. In the following three centuries, Angola became a primary source of slaves for the Americas, especially for BRAZIL. In the 20th century, thousands of Portuguese moved to Angola, seeking a better life in a land of great natural resources and potential. In 1975, Angola gained independence from Portugal. War has been the norm in the last 40 years, costing more than 1.5 million lives, leaving the economy in disarray, and causing destruction of basic infrastructures and widespread presence of post-battle land mines.

Ethnicity plays an important role in the country, with most of the population of Bantu origin. Other groups include the Ovimbundu, the Mbundu, and the Kongo. The capital and largest city is Luanda (3 million people), and main cities include Cabinda, Benguela, Lobito, and Lubango. The majority of the young population lives in rural areas and depends on subsistence agriculture. Life expectancy is low in this African country.

Angola has enormous natural resources, among them petroleum off the northwest coast, and diamonds in the northeast. Oil contributes with almost half the GDP and more than half of exports. Main economic activities are mining, logging, and farming. Agricultural production includes bananas, cassava, coffee, sugarcane, sisal, corn, cotton, and manioc, but much of the food is imported. The rich fisheries nurtured by the Benguela current along the 994-mi (1,600-km) coast are still underexploited. The country also has significant hydroelectric potential, since the central highlands are the source of many important rivers, such as the Cuanza, Cunene, and Cubango.

Andorra

ONE OF THE WORLD’S true curiosities, the sovereign coprincipality of Andorra retains independent status which, according to local history, was granted in the 9th century by Charlemagne for the people’s valiant services to him against the Moors. Consisting of the upper valleys of the river Valira, this tiny country is nestled among the high mountain passes of the Pyrénées between FRANCE and SPAIN. Only 2.5 times the size of Washington, D.C., it is one of the smallest countries in the world. What makes Andorra truly curious, however, is it’s unusual status as a coprincipality, though without a local prince; instead, it is governed jointly by the republic of FRANCE and by the Bishop of Urgell, a small town a few miles to the south in Spain. The French president and the bishop act as coprinces only nominally, however, and since 1993 the country has been entirely sovereign and self-ruling.

PEAKS AND VALLEYS

Andorra is located between the French department of Ariège, in the region of Midi-Pyrénées, and the Spanish province of Lérida (or Lleida) in the region of Catalonia. Consisting of high mountain peaks and narrow valleys, the elevation of Andorra ranges from 6,500 to 10,000 ft (2,000 to 3,000 m). The climate is fairly severe, restricting vegetation to minimal mountain scrub:

One suggestion of the origin of the name Andorra, is that it comes from a local term for “shrub-covered.” But this climate provides excellent high mountain pastures for sheep and cattle and is also a great attraction for skiers from all over Europe. The economy runs mostly on tourism, with numerous summer and winter resorts, and also as a duty-free shopping center. Much of Andorra remains rural. Most of its inhabitants live in one of six main villages, raise their herds of sheep or cattle, and manage small farms, raising rye, wheat, barley, oats, and vegetables. There are also some fruit orchards and vineyards. Most of the population lives in and around the capital, Andorra la Vella, where there is some light manufacture, notably cigarettes, sandals, and anisette liqueur

Andes

THE ANDES IS A mountain system in South America. The mountains form the “backbone” of South America, stretching from the Caribbean coast along the western side of the continent to its southern tip. The name Andes probably derives from either Quechua or Aymara, the two principal Native American languages of South America. Plate-tectonic forces during the Cenozoic Era created the Andes. The mountains are a result of a collision between the continental South American plate and the oceanic Nazca plate that created high peaks and steep slopes. The region is still tectonically active, as earthquakes are common and there are frequent volcanic eruptions. The Andes sometimes serve as a geographic boundary that divides countries, as is the case of the border between ARGENTINA and CHILE. The mountains also divide regions within individual countries.

The highest peaks are found in Argentina, PERU, and ECUADOR. ACONCAGUA MOUNTAIN in Argentina is the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere at 22,834 ft (6,960 m). The lowest peaks are found in the southern and northern extremes. The Andes are widest in BOLIVIA, where there are actually two distinct ranges known as the Cordillera Occidental (Western Range) and Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Range).

Much of the Andes lies in the tropics. However, altitude is generally more of a determining factor than latitude. Indeed, there are even glaciers and snow near the equator. Climate and vegetation are also determined by altitude. Furthermore, elevation affects temperatures, even at the same latitude. Temperatures tend to decrease about 3.7 degrees F for every 1,000-foot (305 m) increase in altitude. For example, Quito, Ecuador, located high in the Andes, has an average annual temperature of 54.6 degrees F (12.5 degrees C). Guayaquil, Ecuador, located at almost the same latitude, but on the coast, has an average temperature of 78.2 degrees F (25.6 degrees C).

In the tropics, different elevations are divided into several distinct categories. Altitudes up to about 3,000 ft (914 m) are referred to as tierra caliente (hot country). Elevations located between 3,000 and 6,000 ft (914 m and 1,829 m) are called tierra templada (temperate land). Tierra fria (cold land) can be found at altitudes of 6,000 to 12,000 ft (1,829 m to 3,657 m). Finally, regions above 12,000 ft (3,657 m) are classified as tierra helada (frozen land).

Much of the Andean region is arid, including the Atacama Desert. On the western side of the Andes, streams do not have well-defined headwaters. In contrast, on the eastern side, there is more rain and more significant headwaters. Two of South America’s major river systems—the AMAZON and the Orinoco—both begin in the Andes.

Anatolian Plateau

The Anatolian Plateau is the central upland region of the ancient region of Anatolia, today’s TURKEY. The plateau is hemmed in by two parallel mountain ranges, the Taurus to the south, along the Mediterranean coast, and the Pontic Mountains to the north, along the coast of the BLACK SEA. Anatolia has served as a bridge between the civilizations of Europe and Asia for thousands of years, with waves of different cultures taking advantage of this central position and establishing cities and empires on the plateau. Site of the first large empire of the Western world, the Hittite, dating from the 15th century B.C.E., the plateau was later given its modern name Anatolia, or “rising sun”by the Greeks looking eastward.

Most of the Anatolian Plateau lies at elevations above 1,640 ft (500 m). This mountainous region lies

at the center of the Arabian, African, Eurasian, Aegean and Turkish tectonic plates: the resulting landscape is dotted with volcanoes (today extinct) and regular earthquakes. The central plateau is composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs filled by shallow salt lakes. Elevations on the plateau itself range from 1,980 to 3,960 ft (600 to 1,200 m). This increases to the east, where the two mountain ranges, the Taurus and Pontic, join to form the eastern highlands (including the highest mountain peaks in Turkey such as Mount Ararat).

The two largest basins on the plateau are the Konya Ovasi and the basin occupied by Tuz Gölü (Salt Lake)—both drain large inland areas and have no external outlet. Other parts of the plateau are drained either by short rivers that flow south into the Mediterranean, or by several larger rivers (notably the Halys and the Sakarya) that drain northward into the Black Sea. Two extinct VOLCANOES, Erciyes and Hasan,left behind lava flows that have eroded over time to form spectacular landscapes of rock cones and capped pinnacles in Goreme, near Nevsehir. The earth in these areas is colored a variety of grays and reds.

The plateau is mostly dry with a mixture of dark and desert soils. Summers here are hotter and drier than in the rest of Anatolia, but also colder and wetter in the winter, with temperatures averaging freezing and frequent heavy snows. The plateau is mostly covered in STEPPE, with short grasses, bushes and stunted willow trees.

Wooded areas are confined to the northwest and northeast, and cultivation (wheat and barley) is restricted to narrow river valleys. IRRIGATION is practiced where water is available, but a deeply entrenched river course makes it difficult for engineers to raise the water to the surrounding agricultural land. Summer dust storms, locusts, extreme heat, and occasional droughts limit agricultural output. Some areas are cultivated with orchards and vineyards, but for the most part the land is used for grazing. Some larger animals live in the highlands (wolf, fox, bear), but the ubiquitous domesticated Angora goat is everywhere. Stock raising is important and overgrazing has also caused some erosion problems.